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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Neutrophils are the most abundant population of circulating leukocytes&#44; and recent studies have shown that neutrophils play a key role in venous and arterial thrombosis&#46; Historically&#44; neutrophils have been associated with the first-line antimicrobial defense&#44; as elements of innate immunity&#59; however&#44; we now know that neutrophils also participate in regulating the inflammatory response&#44; repairing tissues&#44; and promoting angiogenesis&#44; among other processes&#46; When certain stimuli are applied&#44; neutrophils release network structures known as neutrophil extracellular traps &#40;NETs&#41;&#44; which have acquired a considerable interest in the field of research into thrombosis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Excessive NET production has been associated with inflammation&#44; postischemic reperfusion damage&#44; and the growth and progression of cancer&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">NETs were first described by Brinkmann et al&#46; in 2004 who reported how DNA matrices&#44; histones and other granular proteins capture&#44; and destroy bacteria&#44; which represented a new mechanism of antimicrobial protection&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0015"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a></p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">NETosis</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Two forms of NETosis have been described in the literature&#58; lytic or &#8220;suicidal&#8221; NETosis&#44; which entails the death of the neutrophil&#44; and &#8220;vital&#8221; NETosis&#44; in which the formation of NETs and their release are performed without breaking the nuclear and cytoplasmic membrane&#44; thereby preserving the neutrophil&#8217;s functions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Suicidal NETosis occurs after stimulation with phorbol esters through protein kinase <span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">c</span> activation and the collaboration of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidases&#46; Neutrophil stimulation not only by phorbol acetate but also by extracellular pathogens&#44; hyperglycemia&#44; hypoxia&#44; cholesterol crystals&#44; and complement causes the disintegration of the nuclear membrane and expulsion of chromatin in the cytosol&#46; After hours of stimulation&#44; the plasma membrane ruptures&#44; releasing structures composed of DNA&#44; histones&#44; and granular proteins&#44; such as myeloperoxidase and elastase&#46; This process is considered a beneficial mechanism of the immune response against pathogens&#44; while neutrophils lose their phagocytic and chemotactic functions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Chromatin decondensation is a requirement for NET formation&#44; the latter process is mediated by a calcium-dependent enzyme known as peptidylarginine deiminase 4 &#40;PAD4&#41;&#44; which mediates the posttranslational citrullination of arginine residues in histones&#44; although there can be other forms of chromatin decondensation and&#44; consequently&#44; other NETosis pathways independent of PAD4&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> Nevertheless&#44; PAD4 plays a key role&#44; given that mutations in the gene impede NET formation&#44; as happens in PAD4-deficient mice&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0025"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5&#8211;7</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In contrast&#44; &#8220;vital&#8221; NETosis is produced by direct microbial exposure or the presence of lipopolysaccharides via Toll-like receptors&#46; NETosis entails the release of NETs through the export of nuclear content&#44; and the formation of vesicles containing NETs but with membrane integrity and therefore without cell lysis&#44; allowing the neutrophils to continue developing the functions of pathogen detection&#44; capture and destruction&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The formation of these extracellular traps can be measured in real-time using intravital microscopy and visualized through electron microscopy&#46; However&#44; the most widely used method in practice for detecting this formation is conventional microscopy with immunodetection of DNA&#44; and histones in various tissues&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0040"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> At the circulating level&#44; there are immunoenzymatic techniques that enable the quantification of NET components&#44; such as elastase&#44; myeloperoxidase and citrullinated histone H3&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0045"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Nevertheless&#44; most of these methods require improvements in standardization&#44; as well as validation of their sensitivity and specificity&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Prothrombotic effects of neutrophil extracellular traps</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Numerous studies&#44; most of them <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span>&#44; have reported that intact NETs and those separately produced by their components can promote thrombosis through various mechanisms&#46; Initial studies have shown that these structures capture platelets&#44; promoting their activation and aggregation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Subsequent studies have shown that these structures facilitate the generation of thrombin by providing a matrix to which red blood cells&#44; fibrinogen&#44; von Willebrand factor&#44; fibronectin and factor <span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">xii&#44;</span> and tissue factor can adhere&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0050"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#8211;13</span></a> In the presence of DNA complexes and histones&#44; clots are produced with thicker fibrin meshes that are more resistant to thrombolysis&#44; while the administration of DNases reduces the quantity of fibrin and&#44; consequently&#44; the thrombotic occlusion of the vessel&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14&#44;15</span></a> Lastly&#44; studies have observed that the various components of NETs can change the natural inhibiting pathways of coagulation&#46; Thus&#44; the elastase and cathepsin G of neutrophils degrade the tissue factor pathway inhibitor&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> and the histones impair the activation of thrombomodulin-dependent protein <span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">C</span>&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">With the available evidence&#44; it is easy to consider that NETs play a key role in immunothrombosis&#44; a term that describes the relationship between the immune response and coagulation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Neutrophil extracellular traps in venous and arterial thrombosis</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Venous thrombosis is intimately related to inflammation because neutrophils combined with platelets and monocytes contribute to the onset and propagation of the process&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;11</span></a></p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">NETs have been observed in human venous thrombi&#44; preferentially located in those in the organizational phase&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> A study compared thrombi from patients with venous thrombosis with thrombi obtained after myocardial infarction and found that the venous thrombi contained fewer NETs&#44; a finding that could be due to a slowing of the generation of venous thrombi compared with the arterial&#44; which would have contributed to their degradation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> The levels of circulating NETs and released products have been measured in patients with symptomatic deep vein thrombosis &#40;DVT&#41;&#44; as well as in patients with clinical suspicion and exclusion of DVT&#46; The presence of NETs was associated with a significant risk of DVT&#46; These data were confirmed in another study that observed an increase in circulating DNA and myeloperoxidase levels in patients with symptomatic DVT&#44; compared with a patient group with suggestive symptoms but no confirmation of DVT&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21&#44;22</span></a></p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Considering that atherosclerosis&#44; the primary pathophysiological substrate of arterial thrombosis&#44; is a chronic inflammatory process of the arterial wall&#44; numerous studies have studied the role of NETs in vascular arterial diseases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span></a> Several studies on humans have observed the presence of NETs in atherosclerotic lesions&#44; especially in atheromatous plaques with superficial erosion&#44; more than with the rupture of the plaques&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#8211;26</span></a> NETs have been detected in the core of coronary thrombi&#44; correlating the number of NETs with the size of the infarction&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20&#44;27</span></a> NETs have also been detected in coronary stent thrombi<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0140"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span></a> and thrombi obtained from patients with ischemic stroke&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0145"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29&#44;30</span></a> although studies have not been able to confirm that cardioembolic stroke is associated with a greater quantity of NETs in cerebral thrombi&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0155"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> Lastly&#44; some authors have proposed using particular NET components as predictors of severity in coronary artery disease and ischemic stroke&#46; For example&#44; circulating levels of nucleosomes and myeloperoxidase-DNA complexes have been associated with increased histological and symptom severity in patients with coronary artery disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> Other studies have observed that plasma levels of extracellular DNA&#44; nucleosomes&#44; and citrullinated histone H3 correlate with symptom severity and the prognosis of patients with ischemic stroke&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0160"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Neutrophil extracellular traps in cancer-associated thrombosis</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It has been suggested that NETs can play an important role in tumor progression&#44; the formation of metastases&#44; and contributing to cancer-associated thrombosis&#46; For example&#44; it has been observed that various tumor cell lines induce the NET formation and that these NETs intervene in the thrombosis observed in certain tumors&#44; such as pancreatic cancer and other types of adenocarcinoma&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0165"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> The presence of NETs in arterial and venous thrombi obtained from patients with cancer has also been demonstrated&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0170"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34&#44;35</span></a> as well as high plasma levels of citrullinated histone H3&#44; primarily in patients with pancreatic and lung cancer&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0180"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> These studies indicate that circulating markers of NETs can be useful in predicting venous thromboembolism in patients with various types of cancer&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In summary&#44; activated neutrophils release structures &#40;NETs&#41; composed of DNA&#44; histones&#44; and granular proteins that provide an ideal matrix for platelet activation and coagulation mechanisms&#44; thereby contributing to the pathogenesis of thrombosis in venous and arterial territories&#46; This fact&#44; in addition to representing a change in paradigm in the pathogenic theory of thrombosis&#44; could be the basis for developing new diagnostic markers for thrombosis and designing antithrombotic strategies without hemorrhagic risk&#44; using NETs as the therapeutic target&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Prothrombotic effects of neutrophil extracellular traps"
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        6 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0015"
          "titulo" => "Neutrophil extracellular traps in venous and arterial thrombosis"
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          "identificador" => "sec0020"
          "titulo" => "Neutrophil extracellular traps in cancer-associated thrombosis"
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          "titulo" => "Conflicts of interest"
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      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">When activated&#44; neutrophils release structures &#40;NETs&#41; composed of DNA&#44; histones and granular proteins that provide an ideal matrix for platelet activation and coagulation mechanisms&#44; thereby contributing to the pathogenesis of thrombosis in venous and arterial territories&#44; as well as cancer-associated thrombosis&#46; NETs play a key role in immunothrombosis&#44; a term that describes the relationship between the immune response and coagulation&#46;</p></span>"
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        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los neutr&#243;filos&#44; cuando son activados&#44; liberan estructuras &#40;NETs&#41; compuestas por ADN&#44; histonas y prote&#237;nas granulares que proporcionan una matriz id&#243;nea para la activaci&#243;n plaquetaria y de los mecanismos de coagulaci&#243;n&#44; contribuyendo as&#237; a la patogenia de la trombosis en los territorios venoso y arterial&#44; as&#237; como a la trombosis asociada al c&#225;ncer&#46; Los NETs juegan un papel clave en la inmunotrombosis&#44; t&#233;rmino que describe la relaci&#243;n entre la respuesta inmune y la coagulaci&#243;n&#46;</p></span>"
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        "etiqueta" => "&#9734;"
        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as&#58; P&#225;ramo JA&#46; Neutr&#243;filos como instigadores de trombosis&#58; m&#225;s all&#225; de la protecci&#243;n antimicrobiana&#46; Rev Clin Esp&#46; 2020&#59;220&#58;583&#8211;586&#46;</p>"
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Special Article
Neutrophils as instigators of thrombosis: Beyond antimicrobial protection
Neutrófilos como instigadores de trombosis: más allá de la protección antimicrobiana
J.A. Páramo
Corresponding author
japaramo@unav.es

Corresponding author.
Servicio de Hematología, CUN. Laboratorio Aterotrombosis, CIMA. Universidad de Navarra, IdiSNA, CIBERCV, Pamplona, Spain

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