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This figure might be higher&#44; due to late or incorrect diagnoses&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;3</span></a> More recent studies have estimated that approximately 1 of every 64&#44;000 individuals could present FD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In terms of clinical manifestations&#44; the wide distribution of Gb3 involves multiple organs and systems&#46; The involvement is therefore multisystemic&#46; The typical clinical manifestations of FD change with age &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a recent expert review on FD&#44; the authors established a classical clinical pattern for the disease&#44; consisting of the presence of angiokeratoma&#44; neuropathic pain &#40;acute or chronic&#41; and ocular involvement &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cornea verticillata</span>&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#44; with other accompanying manifestations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We should consider Fabry disease as the suspected diagnosis in the following conditions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a>&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Family history of FD&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cornea verticillata</span>&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Anhidrosis or hypohidrosis&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Angiokeratomas&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Acroparesthesia&#46; Peripheral polyneuropathy&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Unexplained hypertrophic cardiomyopathy&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Personal or family history of renal failure with no cardiovascular risk factors&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Stroke in patients younger than 50 years with no cardiovascular risk factors&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0045"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Personal or family history of intolerance to exercise&#44; heat or cold&#46;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The confirmation diagnosis is performed through the biochemical demonstration of &#945;-galactosidase A deficiency&#44; 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It is therefore advisable to anticoagulate patients with FD and atrial fibrillation &#40;AF&#41; according to the current recommendations of the American Heart Association&#47;American College of Cardiology guidelines on AF in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11&#44;12</span></a> In terms of arrhythmias&#44; a number of studies have recommended the implantation of an implantable cardioverter defibrillator &#40;ICD&#41; as primary prevention for patients with ventricular arrhythmias and significant myocardial fibrosis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> With regard to the indications for pacemakers&#44; these are governed by the current guidelines of clinical practice&#46; In renal impairment&#44; FD&#39;s similarity to diabetic nephropathy also translates to the therapeutic management&#46; Strict blood pressure control with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors &#40;ACEIs&#41; or ARB-II is therefore necessary&#46; These drugs seem to be more effective in slowing the progression of renal failure the sooner they are employed&#46; However&#44; it is difficult to define their efficacy in isolation&#44; given that most published studies assessed the drugs as adjuvant treatment to enzyme replacement therapy &#40;ERT&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> If the disease progresses to end-stage renal failure&#44; clinicians resort to dialysis or kidney transplantation&#46; There is no indication for anticoagulation &#40;except in the presence of AF&#41; for preventing strokes&#44; although the use of antiplatelets does seem to be accepted&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Enzyme replacement therapy</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At the start of the 1970s&#44; Brady<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> showed that active forms of &#945;-galactosidase A could be obtained&#46; However&#44; the problem for almost 20 years was how to access sufficient quantities of enzyme to ensure continuity in the replacement therapy&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We currently have 2 forms &#40;&#945; and &#946;&#41; of the replacement enzyme&#46; They have a similar structure and efficacy but some differences in pharmacokinetics and posology&#46; Their price is high&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Published studies on long-term therapy with &#945; and &#946; have shown that both compounds are effective in stabilizing FD&#44; especially if started in early phases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16&#44;17</span></a> However&#44; some aspects of ERT still need to be resolved&#44; mainly because well-designed studies with larger sample sizes are needed to compare the 2 molecules&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Regarding the dosage of the 2 drugs&#44; a dosage of 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg every 2 weeks is recommended for patients treated with agalsidase-&#946;&#46; It has been suggested that lower dosages of agalsidase-&#946; might be insufficient for reducing left ventricular hypertrophy and preventing the disease progression&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> A study assessed the pharmacokinetics of agalsidase-&#945;&#44; with different dosage patterns&#44; and found that the standard dosage of 0&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg every 2 weeks was as effective as higher dosages or weekly doses in reducing Gb3&#44; an elimination effect that was maintained for 4 weeks&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The efficacy of ERT is complicated by many factors&#44; including the scarcity of controlled clinical trials whose duration is short and whose sample sizes are very small&#46; The patients included in these clinical trials also have considerable clinical heterogeneity&#46;</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">So far&#44; there has been no well-designed study that has compared the 2 ERTs &#40;&#945; and &#946;&#41;&#46; In fact&#44; the comparison of the 2 presentations of agalsidase has been scarce or indirect&#46; A Canadian clinical research group designed a randomized prospective study to directly compare the standard doses of agalsidase-&#945; &#40;0&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg&#41; and agalsidase-&#946; &#40;1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg&#41; in adults&#46; The study included 117 patients&#44; with a 5 and 8-year follow-up&#44; and concluded that there were no significant differences between the 2 drugs in the interval free of severe events&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> A recent review published in Cochrane evaluated 9 clinical trials&#44; with a total of 351 patients treated with agalsidase&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> The authors concluded that the trials that compared the 2 ERTs versus placebo showed improvement with ERT in microvascular endothelial Gb3 deposits and in pain-related quality of life&#46; However&#44; there was no evidence on whether form &#945; was superior to &#946; or on the optimal dosage for either form&#46; In terms of safety&#44; the adverse events were more significant with agalsidase-&#946; when compared with placebo&#46; The authors stated that the influence of ERT on the risk of morbidity and mortality in FD is still unclear&#46;</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Another relevant issue in ERT is the optimal moment to start this therapy&#46; In this regard&#44; ERT should be started when the first symptoms of FD occur or when there are incipient signs of visceral involvement &#40;mainly pathological albuminuria&#41;&#44; depending on each patient&#39;s individual circumstances&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#44;22</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The evaluation of the enzyme treatment response is clinical&#46; The response is assessed in the most debilitating symptoms for these patients&#8217; quality of life &#40;neuropathic pain&#41;&#44; in the progression of renal failure &#40;the slower the progression the earlier the start of treatment&#41; and in stabilizing renal impairment&#44; including with the regression of left ventricular hypertrophy&#46; This response cannot be measured with objective parameters because neither Gb3 or lyso-Gb3 have been shown to be useful in the follow-up or in the treatment response&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;9&#44;23</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The criteria for interrupting the ERT are difficulties or noncompliance in the administration&#44; persistent or severe reactions to the infusion &#40;even despite specific prophylaxis&#41; and in situations with a life expectancy shorter than a year &#40;either due to the FD itself or other intercurrent diseases&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Migalastat&#58; a New Therapeutic Era</span><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">After more than a decade since the first authorization of ERT &#40;2001&#41;&#44; the European Medicines Agency authorized the marketing of a new treatment for FD&#58; migalastat&#44; a pharmacological chaperone that binds to certain mutations of &#945;-Gal A&#44; whose genotypes are known as amenable mutations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> Most of these mutations are missense type in the GLA gene and cause an abnormal folding of the &#945;-Gal A protein&#44; which prevents its displacement from the endoplasmic reticulum to the lysosome&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Migalastat is indicated for the long-term therapy of patients 16 years or older with clinical manifestations of FD&#44; with amenable mutations&#46; The recommended dose is 1 capsule &#40;123<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg of migalastat&#41; on alternating days&#44; at the same time of the day&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> Migalastat represents a new paradigm in treating FD&#46;</p><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Mechanism of action and preclinical data</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The chaperone migalastat is a low-molecular-weight iminosugar &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#44; a structural analog of the terminal galactose group of Gb-3&#44; which typically is cleaved by &#945;-galactosidase A&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27&#44;28</span></a> Migalastat is selectively and reversibly fixed &#40;and with considerable affinity&#41; to the active focus of certain mutant forms of &#945;-Gal A &#40;amenable mutations&#41;&#46; The fixation of migalastat stabilizes the mutant &#945;-Gal A&#44; which facilitates its transport from the endoplasmic reticulum to the lysosome&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29&#44;30</span></a> The fixation depends on pH&#58; migalastat presents greater fixation in less acidic conditions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> Given that the pH in the reticulum endoplasmic is less acidic than in the lysosome&#44; migalastat is fixed to &#945;-Gal A in the endoplasmic reticulum and releases &#945;-Gal A in the lysosome&#44; by which it performs its enzymatic function freely&#46; Additionally&#44; the fixation of migalastat to &#945;-Gal A is competitive&#44; i&#46;e&#46;&#44; once the migalastat&#47;&#945;-Gal A complex reaches the lysosome&#44; the normal substrates &#40;Gb3&#41; of &#945;-Gal A compete with migalastat&#46; This encourages migalastat to release &#945;-Gal&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The preclinical study was conducted in a transgenic murine model &#40;Tg&#41; with a knock-out mouse &#40;Tg&#47;KO&#41; for FD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> After 24 weeks of treatment with migalastat&#44; a significant dose-dependent increase was observed in &#945;-Gal A activity&#44; with reduced Gb3 levels in the skin&#44; heart&#44; kidneys&#44; brain and plasma&#46;</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Of particular interest is the analysis of the brain results by Khanna et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> who indicated that migalastat can cross the blood&#8211;brain barrier and reduce the substrate of the disease &#40;Gb3&#41; in the central nervous system of mice&#46; This finding had not been observed in similar studies with ERT&#44; due to its high molecular weight &#40;approx&#46; 110<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>kDa&#41;&#46; These data suggest that migalastat could offer an advantage over ERT for treating central nervous system manifestations in FD&#46;</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Migalastat is better absorbed under fasting conditions &#40;at least 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h between meals&#41;&#44; and its elimination is slower in patients with severe chronic kidney disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Efficacy in controlled clinical trials</span><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Several phase-II clinical trials have evaluated migalastat&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> Two clinical trials were combined for 9 male patients with FD&#46; Migalastat&#44; at a dose of 150<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg on alternating days&#44; increased &#945;-Ga A activity by at least 50&#37; in the blood&#44; skin and kidneys of 6 of the 9 patients&#46; The 3 patients who showed no response had mutations in &#945;-Gal A considered as &#8220;nonresponders&#8221;&#46; In 9 women with FD&#44; migalastat decreased the urine Gb3 levels&#46; The baseline Gb3 levels were high in 7 of the 9 patients and decreased by 28&#37; to 66&#37; in the patients with amenable mutations &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#41; following treatment with migalastat for 48 weeks&#46; The inclusion of Gb3 in the endothelial cells of the peritubular capillaries decreased in 4 patients with amenable mutations and in 2 with nonamenable mutations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a></p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Germain et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> published the results of the first phase-III clinical trial of migalastat&#44; the FACETS study&#46; A total of 67 patients with FD &#40;36&#37; men&#44; 94&#37; with multiple organ involvement&#41;&#44; not previously treated with ERT or not treated with ERT for at least 6 months prior to the study&#44; were randomized to 6 months of double-blind treatment with migalastat or placebo &#40;stage 1&#41;&#44; followed by an open extension of migalastat from month 6 to month 12 &#40;stage 2&#41; plus 1 additional year to month 24 &#40;stage 3&#41;&#46; At that point&#44; the patients could choose to continue the treatment in a separate open extension study&#46; The initial test used to determine the mutant forms of &#945;-Gal A amenable to migalastat &#40;human embryonic kidney assay&#41; was improved before the unmasking of stage 1 by the test of amenability to migalastat validated according to good laboratory practices &#40;GLPs&#41; or GLP-validated human embryonic kidney assay&#44; which showed that 50 of the 67 initially randomized participants presented mutations in &#945;-Gal A amenable to migalastat&#46; The analysis of the primary endpoint showed no significant therapeutic effect&#44; probably because amenable and nonamenable &#945;-Gal A mutations were included&#46; When the authors only considered the patients with mutations amenable to migalastat at 6 months &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>45&#41;&#44; a significant reduction was observed in the number of Gb3 inclusions per renal interstitial capillary in the migalastat group versus the placebo group &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;008&#41;&#44; which remained stable at 12 months of treatment with migalastat&#46; The patients who changed from placebo to migalastat also presented a significant reduction in Gb-3 inclusions at 6 months of treatment &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;01&#41;&#46; There was also a significant reduction in plasma lyso-Gb3 levels after the first 6 months of treatment with migalastat versus placebo &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;003&#41;&#46; The patients who changed from placebo to migalastat at 6 months also experienced a significant reduction in plasma lyso-Gb3 levels between months 6 and 12 &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;001&#41;&#46; In the patients with amenable mutations who were treated with migalastat&#44; the renal function remained stable during the 24 months of the study&#46; The indexed left ventricular mass &#40;ILVM&#41; decreased significantly from the start to 18&#8211;24 months of treatment &#40;&#8722;7&#46;7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#59; 95&#37; CI &#8722;15&#46;4 to &#8722;0&#46;01&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>27&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In terms of gastrointestinal symptoms&#44; migalastat significantly improved the diarrhea and reflux at 6 months of the double-blind FACETS study&#46; In terms of quality of life &#40;measured with the 36-item Short-Form questionnaire&#41; and the severity component &#40;&#8220;pain at its worst&#8221;&#41; of the Brief Pain Inventory&#44; there was no worsening at 24 months of the study&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a></p><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mauer et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> published results showing that migalastat reduced&#44; in just 6 months&#44; the Gb3 content of podocytes&#44; a type of glomerular cell relatively resistant to ERT&#44; in kidney biopsies of 8 men from the FACETS trial&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hughes et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> published the results of the second phase-III clinical trial of migalastat &#40;ATTRACT&#41; to assess the effects of migalastat on the renal function of patients with FD previously treated with ERT for more than 12 months&#46; Sixty patients with FD &#40;44&#37; men&#59; 88&#37; with multiple organ involvement&#41; were randomized to migalastat for 18 months or to remain with ERT&#46; Migalastat and ERT had similar effects on renal function&#46; Plasma lyso-Gb3 levels remained low and stable in both cohorts&#46; Twenty-nine percent of the patients who were treated with migalastat and 44&#37; of those who were treated with ERT presented predefined renal&#44; heart or cerebrovascular events&#46; The ILVM was significantly reduced with migalastat at 18 months &#40;&#8722;6&#46;6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#59; 95&#37; CI &#8722;11&#46;0 to &#8722;2&#46;2&#41;&#44; compared with baseline&#44; while there was no significant change with ERT&#46; The quality-of-life results remained stable and similar between the 2 groups&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Safety</span><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Migalastat was generally safe and well-tolerated&#46; The adverse events that emerged after the start of treatment were comparable between the patients treated with migalastat and those treated with ERT&#46; In the patients treated with ERT&#44; infusion-related reactions were the most common &#40;13&#46;7&#37; with agalsidase-&#945; and 67&#37; with agalsidase-&#946;&#41;&#46; Most of the adverse events that occurred after the start of treatment were mild to moderate&#44; and there were no deaths&#46; The most common adverse reaction reported with migalastat was headaches &#40;10&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Unmet needs</span><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">ERT has various limitations&#46; The administration every 2 weeks exposes patients to progressively lower levels of the enzyme between one infusion and the next&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> The intravenous administration has certain direct healthcare costs &#40;disposal of partially used vials due to a low number of patients per hospital&#44; medication prior to the infusion and management of infusion-related reactions and potential infections&#41;&#44; indirect costs &#40;transport to the hospital and lost productivity&#41; and intangible costs &#40;loss of the patients&#8217; wellbeing and that of their relatives&#41;&#46; The high molecular weight of the recombinant enzymes limits their ability to penetrate key tissues&#44; such as myocytes and brain tissue&#44; and generates neutralizing antibodies and immunogenicity reactions&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Gene therapy</span><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Various methods are being tested&#44; such as the use of vectors &#40;lentivirus&#44; retroviruses and adenovirus&#41; and even bone marrow transplantation&#46; For FD&#44; however&#44; there is still a long road ahead&#44; because most of these studies are in the animal experimentation phase&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Genetic counseling</span><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As with any genetic disease&#44; a family study is required when a case of FD is detected&#44; as well as informing the patient and family about the type of inheritance and offering the option of a prenatal diagnosis&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Conclusions</span><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">FD is a complex paradigm of multisystem disease&#44; whose target organs are mainly the peripheral nervous system&#44; kidneys&#44; heart&#44; digestive system&#44; eyes&#44; ears&#44; skin and central nervous system&#46;</p><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the past 20 years&#44; we have witnessed a change in its management with ERT&#44; which appears to change the course of the disease&#46;</p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Migalastat is the first and only tailored oral therapy &#40;focused on the patient&#39;s genetic profile&#41;&#44; with a new mechanism of action&#44; which has been shown to be effective&#44; safe and well-tolerated for treating patients with FD with amenable mutations&#44; regardless of the disease phenotype and symptom severity&#46; Migalastat therefore opens exciting lines of research&#44; such as the clinical relevance it assumes by crossing the blood&#8211;brain barrier&#46; There are a number of studies that have indicated the boosting effect of migalastat in its concomitant use with ERT&#46;</p><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In general&#44; for internists and other medical specialties&#44; migalastat helps to understand the new and effective mechanism of action of molecular chaperones&#44; which are being investigated in other diseases&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Funding</span><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">M&#46; L&#243;pez received funding from Amicus Therapeutics for implementing this study&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Conflict of interests</span><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">M&#46; L&#243;pez has participated in advisory activities&#44; such as speaking at meetings&#44; and has attended congresses with funding from Shire&#44; Sanofi-Genzyme and Amicus&#46;</p></span></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Fabry disease is an X-linked inborn disease caused by deficit of alpha-galactosidase A&#46; This results in accumulation of glycosphingolipids in all cells and tissues&#46; All males should receive enzyme replacement treatment in case of very low or undetectable levels of alpha-galactosidase A&#46; Female carriers and males with marginally levels of alpha-galactosidase A should be treated in case of renal&#44; neurologic o cardiac manifestations&#46; There are two intravenous formulations of human recombinant enzyme&#44; agalsidase alpha and agalsidase beta&#44; showing similar efficacy and safety&#46; Patients with amenable mutations of alpha-galactosidase can be treated with oral migalastat hydrochloride&#46; Migalastat hydrochloride is a pharmacological chaperone that facilitates trafficking of alpha-galactosidase A to lysosomes increasing enzyme activity&#46; Patients treated with migalastat hydrochloride had significant improvements in left ventricular mass and gastrointestinal symptoms&#46;</p></span>"
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        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La enfermedad de Fabry es una enfermedad ligada al cromosoma X causada por un d&#233;ficit de alfa-galactosidasa A&#46; Esto da como resultado la acumulaci&#243;n de glicoesfingol&#237;pidos en todas las c&#233;lulas y tejidos&#46; Todos los varones deben tratarse con reemplazo enzim&#225;tico en caso de presentar niveles muy bajos o indetectables de alfa-galactosidasa A&#46; Las mujeres portadoras y los varones con niveles m&#237;nimos de alfa-galactosidasa A deben tratarse si existe afectaci&#243;n renal&#44; neurol&#243;gica o card&#237;aca&#46; Para terapia de reemplazo enzim&#225;tico existen dos formulaciones intravenosas&#44; agalsidasa alfa y agalsidasa beta&#44; que muestran una eficacia y seguridad similares&#46; Los pacientes con mutaciones susceptibles del gen alfa-galactosidasa A pueden tratarse con migalastat oral&#46; El migalastat es una mol&#233;cula que facilita el paso de alfa-galactosidasa A a los lisosomas&#44; produciendo aumento de actividad del enzima&#46; Los pacientes tratados con migalastat muestran mejoras significativas en la masa del ventr&#237;culo izquierdo y en los s&#237;ntomas gastrointestinales&#46;</p></span>"
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        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as&#58; L&#243;pez Rodr&#237;guez M&#46; Tratamiento en la enfermedad de Fabry&#46; Rev Clin Esp&#46; 2018&#59;218&#58;489&#8211;495&#46;</p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Fever&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Abdominal pain&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Hypohidrosis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Clinical manifestations&#44; according to age&#44; in Fabry disease&#46;</p>"
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      "titulo" => "References"
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Review
Treatment in Fabry disease
Tratamiento en la enfermedad de Fabry
M. López Rodríguez
Grupo de Trabajo de Enfermedades Minoritarias, Sociedad Española de Medicina Interna (SEMI), Spain
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Background</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fabry disease &#40;FD&#41; is a rare X-linked lysosomal storage disorder caused by mutations in the gene that encodes for the &#945;-galactosidase A enzyme &#40;gene GLA&#44; located in the long arm of the X chromosome &#40;Xq22&#46;1&#41;&#41;&#46; The condition produces an accumulation of the neutral glycosphingolipid globotriaosylceramide &#40;Gb3 or GL3&#41; in the lysosomes of cells primarily of the renal epithelium&#44; myocardium&#44; neurons of the spinal ganglia&#44; autonomic nervous system and endothelium&#46; Under normal conditions&#44; the &#945;-galactosidase A enzyme degrades Gb3 to produce galactose and lactosylceramide&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0200"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The incidence rate of FD varies between 1 out of every 117&#44;000 and 1 out of every 476&#44;000 live newborns&#44; This figure might be higher&#44; due to late or incorrect diagnoses&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;3</span></a> More recent studies have estimated that approximately 1 of every 64&#44;000 individuals could present FD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In terms of clinical manifestations&#44; the wide distribution of Gb3 involves multiple organs and systems&#46; The involvement is therefore multisystemic&#46; The typical clinical manifestations of FD change with age &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a recent expert review on FD&#44; the authors established a classical clinical pattern for the disease&#44; consisting of the presence of angiokeratoma&#44; neuropathic pain &#40;acute or chronic&#41; and ocular involvement &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cornea verticillata</span>&#41; &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#44; with other accompanying manifestations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We should consider Fabry disease as the suspected diagnosis in the following conditions<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0225"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a>&#58;<ul class="elsevierStyleList" id="lis0005"><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0005"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Family history of FD&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0010"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Cornea verticillata</span>&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0015"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Anhidrosis or hypohidrosis&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0020"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Angiokeratomas&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0025"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Acroparesthesia&#46; Peripheral polyneuropathy&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0030"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Unexplained hypertrophic cardiomyopathy&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0035"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Personal or family history of renal failure with no cardiovascular risk factors&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0040"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Stroke in patients younger than 50 years with no cardiovascular risk factors&#59;</p></li><li class="elsevierStyleListItem" id="lsti0045"><span class="elsevierStyleLabel">-</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Personal or family history of intolerance to exercise&#44; heat or cold&#46;</p></li></ul></p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The confirmation diagnosis is performed through the biochemical demonstration of &#945;-galactosidase A deficiency&#44; whose activity can be measured in leukocytes&#44; serum or fibroblasts using a radioimmunoassay&#46;</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Enzyme activity below 0&#46;06<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>U&#47;g in leukocytes &#40;6&#46;0&#8211;13&#46;9&#41;&#44; 0&#46;06<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>U&#47;L in serum &#40;1&#46;7&#8211;7&#46;9&#41; and 0&#46;6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>U&#47;g in fibroblasts &#40;20&#46;9&#8211;39&#46;7&#41; is characteristic of the disease&#46; In heterozygous women&#44; a genetic-molecular study is necessary because enzyme levels could be normal&#46; Plasma and urine Gb3 levels are often increased&#44; but their usefulness in the diagnosis and follow-up is limited&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> Lyso-Gb3 appears to be a more useful biomarker<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8&#44;9</span></a> for diagnosing the disease but not so much for the follow-up and prognosis&#46;</p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the screening&#44; a clinical&#44; biochemical and genetic study should be offered to relatives of all newly diagnosed patients&#44; as well as the option of prenatal diagnosis&#44; if applicable&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> This prenatal diagnosis is performed by measuring &#945;-galactosidase A activity in fetal cells&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Nonspecific treatment</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Neuropathic pain crises and acroparesthesia are treated with membrane-stabilizing drugs &#40;carbamazepine&#44; phenytoin&#41;&#46; Angiokeratomas can benefit from laser therapy&#46; In terms of cardiac manifestations&#44; the recommendations for FD are the standard one for general clinical practice&#46; Heart disease continues to account for most deaths in patients with FD of both sexes and phenotypes&#46; It is therefore advisable to anticoagulate patients with FD and atrial fibrillation &#40;AF&#41; according to the current recommendations of the American Heart Association&#47;American College of Cardiology guidelines on AF in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11&#44;12</span></a> In terms of arrhythmias&#44; a number of studies have recommended the implantation of an implantable cardioverter defibrillator &#40;ICD&#41; as primary prevention for patients with ventricular arrhythmias and significant myocardial fibrosis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> With regard to the indications for pacemakers&#44; these are governed by the current guidelines of clinical practice&#46; In renal impairment&#44; FD&#39;s similarity to diabetic nephropathy also translates to the therapeutic management&#46; Strict blood pressure control with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors &#40;ACEIs&#41; or ARB-II is therefore necessary&#46; These drugs seem to be more effective in slowing the progression of renal failure the sooner they are employed&#46; However&#44; it is difficult to define their efficacy in isolation&#44; given that most published studies assessed the drugs as adjuvant treatment to enzyme replacement therapy &#40;ERT&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a> If the disease progresses to end-stage renal failure&#44; clinicians resort to dialysis or kidney transplantation&#46; There is no indication for anticoagulation &#40;except in the presence of AF&#41; for preventing strokes&#44; although the use of antiplatelets does seem to be accepted&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Enzyme replacement therapy</span><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">At the start of the 1970s&#44; Brady<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0270"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> showed that active forms of &#945;-galactosidase A could be obtained&#46; However&#44; the problem for almost 20 years was how to access sufficient quantities of enzyme to ensure continuity in the replacement therapy&#46;</p><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">We currently have 2 forms &#40;&#945; and &#946;&#41; of the replacement enzyme&#46; They have a similar structure and efficacy but some differences in pharmacokinetics and posology&#46; Their price is high&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Published studies on long-term therapy with &#945; and &#946; have shown that both compounds are effective in stabilizing FD&#44; especially if started in early phases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0275"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16&#44;17</span></a> However&#44; some aspects of ERT still need to be resolved&#44; mainly because well-designed studies with larger sample sizes are needed to compare the 2 molecules&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Regarding the dosage of the 2 drugs&#44; a dosage of 1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg every 2 weeks is recommended for patients treated with agalsidase-&#946;&#46; It has been suggested that lower dosages of agalsidase-&#946; might be insufficient for reducing left ventricular hypertrophy and preventing the disease progression&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> A study assessed the pharmacokinetics of agalsidase-&#945;&#44; with different dosage patterns&#44; and found that the standard dosage of 0&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg every 2 weeks was as effective as higher dosages or weekly doses in reducing Gb3&#44; an elimination effect that was maintained for 4 weeks&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0290"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a></p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The efficacy of ERT is complicated by many factors&#44; including the scarcity of controlled clinical trials whose duration is short and whose sample sizes are very small&#46; The patients included in these clinical trials also have considerable clinical heterogeneity&#46;</p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">So far&#44; there has been no well-designed study that has compared the 2 ERTs &#40;&#945; and &#946;&#41;&#46; In fact&#44; the comparison of the 2 presentations of agalsidase has been scarce or indirect&#46; A Canadian clinical research group designed a randomized prospective study to directly compare the standard doses of agalsidase-&#945; &#40;0&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg&#41; and agalsidase-&#946; &#40;1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg&#47;kg&#41; in adults&#46; The study included 117 patients&#44; with a 5 and 8-year follow-up&#44; and concluded that there were no significant differences between the 2 drugs in the interval free of severe events&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span></a> A recent review published in Cochrane evaluated 9 clinical trials&#44; with a total of 351 patients treated with agalsidase&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a> The authors concluded that the trials that compared the 2 ERTs versus placebo showed improvement with ERT in microvascular endothelial Gb3 deposits and in pain-related quality of life&#46; However&#44; there was no evidence on whether form &#945; was superior to &#946; or on the optimal dosage for either form&#46; In terms of safety&#44; the adverse events were more significant with agalsidase-&#946; when compared with placebo&#46; The authors stated that the influence of ERT on the risk of morbidity and mortality in FD is still unclear&#46;</p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Another relevant issue in ERT is the optimal moment to start this therapy&#46; In this regard&#44; ERT should be started when the first symptoms of FD occur or when there are incipient signs of visceral involvement &#40;mainly pathological albuminuria&#41;&#44; depending on each patient&#39;s individual circumstances&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10&#44;22</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The evaluation of the enzyme treatment response is clinical&#46; The response is assessed in the most debilitating symptoms for these patients&#8217; quality of life &#40;neuropathic pain&#41;&#44; in the progression of renal failure &#40;the slower the progression the earlier the start of treatment&#41; and in stabilizing renal impairment&#44; including with the regression of left ventricular hypertrophy&#46; This response cannot be measured with objective parameters because neither Gb3 or lyso-Gb3 have been shown to be useful in the follow-up or in the treatment response&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;9&#44;23</span></a></p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The criteria for interrupting the ERT are difficulties or noncompliance in the administration&#44; persistent or severe reactions to the infusion &#40;even despite specific prophylaxis&#41; and in situations with a life expectancy shorter than a year &#40;either due to the FD itself or other intercurrent diseases&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0315"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Migalastat&#58; a New Therapeutic Era</span><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">After more than a decade since the first authorization of ERT &#40;2001&#41;&#44; the European Medicines Agency authorized the marketing of a new treatment for FD&#58; migalastat&#44; a pharmacological chaperone that binds to certain mutations of &#945;-Gal A&#44; whose genotypes are known as amenable mutations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> Most of these mutations are missense type in the GLA gene and cause an abnormal folding of the &#945;-Gal A protein&#44; which prevents its displacement from the endoplasmic reticulum to the lysosome&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0325"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span></a></p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Migalastat is indicated for the long-term therapy of patients 16 years or older with clinical manifestations of FD&#44; with amenable mutations&#46; The recommended dose is 1 capsule &#40;123<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg of migalastat&#41; on alternating days&#44; at the same time of the day&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a> Migalastat represents a new paradigm in treating FD&#46;</p><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Mechanism of action and preclinical data</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The chaperone migalastat is a low-molecular-weight iminosugar &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#44; a structural analog of the terminal galactose group of Gb-3&#44; which typically is cleaved by &#945;-galactosidase A&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27&#44;28</span></a> Migalastat is selectively and reversibly fixed &#40;and with considerable affinity&#41; to the active focus of certain mutant forms of &#945;-Gal A &#40;amenable mutations&#41;&#46; The fixation of migalastat stabilizes the mutant &#945;-Gal A&#44; which facilitates its transport from the endoplasmic reticulum to the lysosome&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0340"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29&#44;30</span></a> The fixation depends on pH&#58; migalastat presents greater fixation in less acidic conditions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0350"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a> Given that the pH in the reticulum endoplasmic is less acidic than in the lysosome&#44; migalastat is fixed to &#945;-Gal A in the endoplasmic reticulum and releases &#945;-Gal A in the lysosome&#44; by which it performs its enzymatic function freely&#46; Additionally&#44; the fixation of migalastat to &#945;-Gal A is competitive&#44; i&#46;e&#46;&#44; once the migalastat&#47;&#945;-Gal A complex reaches the lysosome&#44; the normal substrates &#40;Gb3&#41; of &#945;-Gal A compete with migalastat&#46; This encourages migalastat to release &#945;-Gal&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The preclinical study was conducted in a transgenic murine model &#40;Tg&#41; with a knock-out mouse &#40;Tg&#47;KO&#41; for FD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> After 24 weeks of treatment with migalastat&#44; a significant dose-dependent increase was observed in &#945;-Gal A activity&#44; with reduced Gb3 levels in the skin&#44; heart&#44; kidneys&#44; brain and plasma&#46;</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Of particular interest is the analysis of the brain results by Khanna et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0355"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> who indicated that migalastat can cross the blood&#8211;brain barrier and reduce the substrate of the disease &#40;Gb3&#41; in the central nervous system of mice&#46; This finding had not been observed in similar studies with ERT&#44; due to its high molecular weight &#40;approx&#46; 110<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>kDa&#41;&#46; These data suggest that migalastat could offer an advantage over ERT for treating central nervous system manifestations in FD&#46;</p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Migalastat is better absorbed under fasting conditions &#40;at least 2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h between meals&#41;&#44; and its elimination is slower in patients with severe chronic kidney disease&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0360"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Efficacy in controlled clinical trials</span><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Several phase-II clinical trials have evaluated migalastat&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> Two clinical trials were combined for 9 male patients with FD&#46; Migalastat&#44; at a dose of 150<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mg on alternating days&#44; increased &#945;-Ga A activity by at least 50&#37; in the blood&#44; skin and kidneys of 6 of the 9 patients&#46; The 3 patients who showed no response had mutations in &#945;-Gal A considered as &#8220;nonresponders&#8221;&#46; In 9 women with FD&#44; migalastat decreased the urine Gb3 levels&#46; The baseline Gb3 levels were high in 7 of the 9 patients and decreased by 28&#37; to 66&#37; in the patients with amenable mutations &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#41; following treatment with migalastat for 48 weeks&#46; The inclusion of Gb3 in the endothelial cells of the peritubular capillaries decreased in 4 patients with amenable mutations and in 2 with nonamenable mutations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a></p><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Germain et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> published the results of the first phase-III clinical trial of migalastat&#44; the FACETS study&#46; A total of 67 patients with FD &#40;36&#37; men&#44; 94&#37; with multiple organ involvement&#41;&#44; not previously treated with ERT or not treated with ERT for at least 6 months prior to the study&#44; were randomized to 6 months of double-blind treatment with migalastat or placebo &#40;stage 1&#41;&#44; followed by an open extension of migalastat from month 6 to month 12 &#40;stage 2&#41; plus 1 additional year to month 24 &#40;stage 3&#41;&#46; At that point&#44; the patients could choose to continue the treatment in a separate open extension study&#46; The initial test used to determine the mutant forms of &#945;-Gal A amenable to migalastat &#40;human embryonic kidney assay&#41; was improved before the unmasking of stage 1 by the test of amenability to migalastat validated according to good laboratory practices &#40;GLPs&#41; or GLP-validated human embryonic kidney assay&#44; which showed that 50 of the 67 initially randomized participants presented mutations in &#945;-Gal A amenable to migalastat&#46; The analysis of the primary endpoint showed no significant therapeutic effect&#44; probably because amenable and nonamenable &#945;-Gal A mutations were included&#46; When the authors only considered the patients with mutations amenable to migalastat at 6 months &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>45&#41;&#44; a significant reduction was observed in the number of Gb3 inclusions per renal interstitial capillary in the migalastat group versus the placebo group &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;008&#41;&#44; which remained stable at 12 months of treatment with migalastat&#46; The patients who changed from placebo to migalastat also presented a significant reduction in Gb-3 inclusions at 6 months of treatment &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;01&#41;&#46; There was also a significant reduction in plasma lyso-Gb3 levels after the first 6 months of treatment with migalastat versus placebo &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;003&#41;&#46; The patients who changed from placebo to migalastat at 6 months also experienced a significant reduction in plasma lyso-Gb3 levels between months 6 and 12 &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#46;001&#41;&#46; In the patients with amenable mutations who were treated with migalastat&#44; the renal function remained stable during the 24 months of the study&#46; The indexed left ventricular mass &#40;ILVM&#41; decreased significantly from the start to 18&#8211;24 months of treatment &#40;&#8722;7&#46;7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#59; 95&#37; CI &#8722;15&#46;4 to &#8722;0&#46;01&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>27&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In terms of gastrointestinal symptoms&#44; migalastat significantly improved the diarrhea and reflux at 6 months of the double-blind FACETS study&#46; In terms of quality of life &#40;measured with the 36-item Short-Form questionnaire&#41; and the severity component &#40;&#8220;pain at its worst&#8221;&#41; of the Brief Pain Inventory&#44; there was no worsening at 24 months of the study&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0375"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a></p><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mauer et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0380"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37</span></a> published results showing that migalastat reduced&#44; in just 6 months&#44; the Gb3 content of podocytes&#44; a type of glomerular cell relatively resistant to ERT&#44; in kidney biopsies of 8 men from the FACETS trial&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hughes et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0385"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> published the results of the second phase-III clinical trial of migalastat &#40;ATTRACT&#41; to assess the effects of migalastat on the renal function of patients with FD previously treated with ERT for more than 12 months&#46; Sixty patients with FD &#40;44&#37; men&#59; 88&#37; with multiple organ involvement&#41; were randomized to migalastat for 18 months or to remain with ERT&#46; Migalastat and ERT had similar effects on renal function&#46; Plasma lyso-Gb3 levels remained low and stable in both cohorts&#46; Twenty-nine percent of the patients who were treated with migalastat and 44&#37; of those who were treated with ERT presented predefined renal&#44; heart or cerebrovascular events&#46; The ILVM was significantly reduced with migalastat at 18 months &#40;&#8722;6&#46;6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#59; 95&#37; CI &#8722;11&#46;0 to &#8722;2&#46;2&#41;&#44; compared with baseline&#44; while there was no significant change with ERT&#46; The quality-of-life results remained stable and similar between the 2 groups&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">Safety</span><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Migalastat was generally safe and well-tolerated&#46; The adverse events that emerged after the start of treatment were comparable between the patients treated with migalastat and those treated with ERT&#46; In the patients treated with ERT&#44; infusion-related reactions were the most common &#40;13&#46;7&#37; with agalsidase-&#945; and 67&#37; with agalsidase-&#946;&#41;&#46; Most of the adverse events that occurred after the start of treatment were mild to moderate&#44; and there were no deaths&#46; The most common adverse reaction reported with migalastat was headaches &#40;10&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0330"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">Unmet needs</span><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">ERT has various limitations&#46; The administration every 2 weeks exposes patients to progressively lower levels of the enzyme between one infusion and the next&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0390"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span></a> The intravenous administration has certain direct healthcare costs &#40;disposal of partially used vials due to a low number of patients per hospital&#44; medication prior to the infusion and management of infusion-related reactions and potential infections&#41;&#44; indirect costs &#40;transport to the hospital and lost productivity&#41; and intangible costs &#40;loss of the patients&#8217; wellbeing and that of their relatives&#41;&#46; The high molecular weight of the recombinant enzymes limits their ability to penetrate key tissues&#44; such as myocytes and brain tissue&#44; and generates neutralizing antibodies and immunogenicity reactions&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Gene therapy</span><p id="par0205" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Various methods are being tested&#44; such as the use of vectors &#40;lentivirus&#44; retroviruses and adenovirus&#41; and even bone marrow transplantation&#46; For FD&#44; however&#44; there is still a long road ahead&#44; because most of these studies are in the animal experimentation phase&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Genetic counseling</span><p id="par0210" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As with any genetic disease&#44; a family study is required when a case of FD is detected&#44; as well as informing the patient and family about the type of inheritance and offering the option of a prenatal diagnosis&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Conclusions</span><p id="par0215" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">FD is a complex paradigm of multisystem disease&#44; whose target organs are mainly the peripheral nervous system&#44; kidneys&#44; heart&#44; digestive system&#44; eyes&#44; ears&#44; skin and central nervous system&#46;</p><p id="par0220" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the past 20 years&#44; we have witnessed a change in its management with ERT&#44; which appears to change the course of the disease&#46;</p><p id="par0225" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Migalastat is the first and only tailored oral therapy &#40;focused on the patient&#39;s genetic profile&#41;&#44; with a new mechanism of action&#44; which has been shown to be effective&#44; safe and well-tolerated for treating patients with FD with amenable mutations&#44; regardless of the disease phenotype and symptom severity&#46; Migalastat therefore opens exciting lines of research&#44; such as the clinical relevance it assumes by crossing the blood&#8211;brain barrier&#46; There are a number of studies that have indicated the boosting effect of migalastat in its concomitant use with ERT&#46;</p><p id="par0230" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In general&#44; for internists and other medical specialties&#44; migalastat helps to understand the new and effective mechanism of action of molecular chaperones&#44; which are being investigated in other diseases&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Funding</span><p id="par0235" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">M&#46; L&#243;pez received funding from Amicus Therapeutics for implementing this study&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Conflict of interests</span><p id="par0240" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">M&#46; L&#243;pez has participated in advisory activities&#44; such as speaking at meetings&#44; and has attended congresses with funding from Shire&#44; Sanofi-Genzyme and Amicus&#46;</p></span></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Fabry disease is an X-linked inborn disease caused by deficit of alpha-galactosidase A&#46; This results in accumulation of glycosphingolipids in all cells and tissues&#46; All males should receive enzyme replacement treatment in case of very low or undetectable levels of alpha-galactosidase A&#46; Female carriers and males with marginally levels of alpha-galactosidase A should be treated in case of renal&#44; neurologic o cardiac manifestations&#46; There are two intravenous formulations of human recombinant enzyme&#44; agalsidase alpha and agalsidase beta&#44; showing similar efficacy and safety&#46; Patients with amenable mutations of alpha-galactosidase can be treated with oral migalastat hydrochloride&#46; Migalastat hydrochloride is a pharmacological chaperone that facilitates trafficking of alpha-galactosidase A to lysosomes increasing enzyme activity&#46; Patients treated with migalastat hydrochloride had significant improvements in left ventricular mass and gastrointestinal symptoms&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La enfermedad de Fabry es una enfermedad ligada al cromosoma X causada por un d&#233;ficit de alfa-galactosidasa A&#46; Esto da como resultado la acumulaci&#243;n de glicoesfingol&#237;pidos en todas las c&#233;lulas y tejidos&#46; Todos los varones deben tratarse con reemplazo enzim&#225;tico en caso de presentar niveles muy bajos o indetectables de alfa-galactosidasa A&#46; Las mujeres portadoras y los varones con niveles m&#237;nimos de alfa-galactosidasa A deben tratarse si existe afectaci&#243;n renal&#44; neurol&#243;gica o card&#237;aca&#46; Para terapia de reemplazo enzim&#225;tico existen dos formulaciones intravenosas&#44; agalsidasa alfa y agalsidasa beta&#44; que muestran una eficacia y seguridad similares&#46; Los pacientes con mutaciones susceptibles del gen alfa-galactosidasa A pueden tratarse con migalastat oral&#46; El migalastat es una mol&#233;cula que facilita el paso de alfa-galactosidasa A a los lisosomas&#44; produciendo aumento de actividad del enzima&#46; Los pacientes tratados con migalastat muestran mejoras significativas en la masa del ventr&#237;culo izquierdo y en los s&#237;ntomas gastrointestinales&#46;</p></span>"
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        "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as&#58; L&#243;pez Rodr&#237;guez M&#46; Tratamiento en la enfermedad de Fabry&#46; Rev Clin Esp&#46; 2018&#59;218&#58;489&#8211;495&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Chemical structure of migalastat Formula&#58; C<span class="elsevierStyleInf">6</span>H<span class="elsevierStyleInf">14</span>ClNO<span class="elsevierStyleInf">4</span>&#46; Molecular weight&#58; 199&#46;63<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;mol&#46;</p>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Abbreviation</span>&#58; LVH&#44; left ventricular hypertrophy&#46;</p>"
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                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Childhood&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Adolescence&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">30&#8211;40 years&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Pain&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Angiokeratoma&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Chronic kidney disease&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Acroparesthesia&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Proteinuria&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Heart disease &#40;LVH&#44; arrhythmias&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Angiokeratoma&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Lipiduria&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Stroke&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Ocular disorders&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Hematuria&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Fever&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Abdominal pain&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Hypohidrosis&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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ISSN: 22548874
Original language: English
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