Editorial
Hepatitis C is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease
La hepatitis C es un factor de riesgo para enfermedad cardiovascular
Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas/Medicina Interna, Hospital Clínico San Carlos-IdiSSC, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
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Estrada, I. Sagastagoitia" "autores" => array:2 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "V." "apellidos" => "Estrada" "email" => array:1 [ 0 => "vesda001@gmail.com" ] "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">*</span>" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "nombre" => "I." "apellidos" => "Sagastagoitia" ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "entidad" => "Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas/Medicina Interna, Hospital Clínico San Carlos-IdiSSC, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "La hepatitis <span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">C</span> es un factor de riesgo para enfermedad cardiovascular" ] ] "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a highly prevalent disease worldwide and is estimated to affect approximately 170 million individuals worldwide (2.5% of the global population).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> HCV is one of the main causes of chronic liver disease and is responsible for progressive hepatic fibrosis, which leads to cirrhosis, hepatic impairment, hepatocarcinoma and death.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> The numerous extrahepatic manifestations include cryoglobulinemia, chronic kidney disease and diabetes mellitus.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> In recent years, the natural history of the disease has changed, thanks to the extraordinary efficacy of direct-acting antivirals (DAAs), which heal the infection in most patients. Recent data have identified HCV infection as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> The basis of this association is related to the chronic inflammatory state associated with HCV infection<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a> and confirms the importance of inflammation in the pathogenesis of arteriosclerosis. Increases in inflammation biomarkers such as interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, C-reactive protein and fibrinogen have been reported in this disease.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Chronic immune activation associated with chronic HCV increases sCD14, sCD163, Mac2BP and autotaxin levels, which not only influence atherogenesis but are related to the grade of fibrosis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> HCV infection is related to glucose and lipoprotein metabolism disorders, promoting greater insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis and type 2 diabetes, which in turn increase the development of arteriosclerosis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> Confirming this association, vascular imaging studies in patients with HCV have consistently shown that this infection is associated with a higher rate and greater severity of obstructive lesions in the coronary territory.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> The association between HCV infection and the presence of markers of subclinical CVD has also been confirmed. In general, most studies have observed an association between HCV infection and an increased number of atheromatous plaques in the carotid territory using ultrasonography, an increase in pulse wave velocity or an increase in the carotid intima-media thickness.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> To complete the cycle, there are data confirming an improvement in CVD both clinically and subclinically in those patients who are cured of this infection with DAAs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0115"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this issue of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Revista Clínica Española</span>, Revuelto et al. present a study in which they examined various vascular territories (carotid and femoral arteries) and the carotid intima-media thickness through ultrasonography in a patient group with HCV infection and compared the findings in a patient group with the same characteristics but without HCV infection. The authors found that the patients with HCV infection had a significantly higher number of atheromatous plaques in the studied territories, especially in the carotid territory (58.8% vs. 28.4%). In the multivariate analysis, the factors independently associated with the presence of atheromatous plaques were HCV infection (OR, 14.37; 95% CI 5.5–37.3), age (OR, 1.12; 95% CI 1.1–1.2), male sex (OR, 4.32; 95% CI 1.9–9.5) and the triglyceride/HDL cholesterol ratio (OR, 1.34; 95% CI 1.1–1.6). It is worth noting the considerable influence of HCV infection on the presence of atheromatosis in the study patients, which could be partly due to a degree of selection bias in the control group. The control patients were recruited from a specialized consultation for the prevention of cardiovascular risk. The control group had a lower proportion of smokers and ex-smokers and fewer plaques than in other descriptive studies conducted in the Spanish general population.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> In any case, the study has significant methodological rigor, which allows it to confirm data previously reported in the literature supporting this association. It is worth noting the potential usefulness of vascular ultrasonography as a screening procedure for subclinical CVD, of which the authors are outstanding pioneers in its development in Spain. The presence of atheromatous plaques could indicate the presence of vascular disease, making lipid-lowering therapy advisable for patients with intermediate risk. A number of authors have suggested that the presence of atheromatous plaques is indicative of established atherosclerotic disease and that secondary prevention of CVD could be indicated.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> Another conclusion that can be deduced from the results of this study is that HCV infection screening should be indicated when assessing the cardiovascular risk. Identifying patients with asymptomatic HCV infection who could benefit from DAA therapy is an objective of scientific societies.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0130"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> This benefit would not only result in preventing the progression of fibrosis and the risk of liver disease but would also reduce these patients’ cardiovascular risk.</p></span>" "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "NotaPie" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "☆" "nota" => "<p class="elsevierStyleNotepara" id="npar0005">Please cite this article as: Estrada V, Sagastagoitia I. La hepatitis <span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">C</span> es un factor de riesgo para enfermedad cardiovascular. 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