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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Catheter-related bacteremia &#40;CRB&#41; is an important cause of nosocomial infection&#44; associated with high morbidity and mortality rates and a considerable economic burden&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2</span></a> In 2006&#44; Maki et al&#46; graded the risk of bloodstream infection in adults with various intravascular devices&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> concluding that the risk is higher in patients with large central venous catheters &#40;CVCs&#41; than in those with short peripheral venous catheters &#40;PVCs&#41;&#44; according to the number of days the catheter is in place&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Standard recommendations for prevention of catheter-related infection based on the best available evidence are periodically published by scientific societies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#8211;6</span></a> This has contributed to reducing the infection risk of venous catheterization&#44; mainly in intensive care units &#40;ICU&#41; where CVCs are commonly used&#46; However&#44; there is scant information about prevention in relation to PVCs&#46; Recently&#44; an expert consensus document was published on the prevention&#44; diagnosis&#44; and treatment of short-term PVC-related infection in adults&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> The aim of this article is to present and discuss the key points that can contribute to better use of short-term PVCs in hospital wards&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">The magnitude of the problem</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A recent prevalence study showed that 81&#46;9&#37; of patients admitted to Internal Medicine departments have one or more catheters inserted&#44; among which 95&#37; were short-term PVCs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> PVC use is much more extensive than the use of CVCs&#46; For example&#44; in one community hospital in our setting&#44; 60 PVCs were placed for each CVC &#40;unpublished data from Mataro Hospital&#59; Mataro&#44; Spain&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the laboratory-based surveillance registry of hospital-acquired CRB in Catalonia &#40;northeast Spain&#41; during 2007&#8211;2010&#44; which included 2977 CRB episodes from 40 hospitals&#44; 1 out of 5 episodes was caused by a PVC&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Analysis of data from outside the ICU has shown that PVC infection is even more relevant in this setting&#46; In one university-affiliated hospital&#44; 150 CRB episodes were detected in non-intensive care patients over a 12-month period&#58; 77 were PVC-related and 73 CVC-related&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Furthermore&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Staphylococcus aureus</span> was more commonly the cause of PVC episodes than CVC episodes &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01&#41; and this led to a higher rate of infectious complications&#44; including nosocomial endocarditis&#44; in patients with PVCs&#46; Mortality was similar in the two groups&#46; A study carried out in a community hospital<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> also showed the importance of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S&#46; aureus</span> as a cause of PVC bacteremia&#59; the complication rate and related mortality were not inferior to those of CVC bacteremia&#46; These data underscore the relevance of PVCs and their high associated risk of nosocomial bacteremia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> Clearly&#44; preventive measures focusing on the management of peripheral lines should be implemented and adopted in clinical practice&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">State of the art</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A prevalence survey about PVCs management was carried out in 47 Internal Medicine departments &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2090 patients&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> It included an interview with the head nurses using a standardized questionnaire to assess local policies and practices for daily care of intravenous catheters as compared to international standards&#46; The results showed a huge need for improvement regarding catheter use and care&#46; It was estimated that 19&#37; of the catheters in place were no longer necessary&#46; A daily record of the need for a catheter was available in only 40&#46;6&#37; of cases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> In addition&#44; several observational studies have shown that there is a lack of knowledge on how to use PVCs by attending staff and great differences in the handling of these devices&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#8211;16</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Opportunities to improve</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Based on the results of observational studies and the evaluation of staff knowledge about the risk factors for infection and handling of PVCs&#44; we think there are many opportunities to improve catheter use and care&#46; Several guidelines and consensus documents are available on the prevention&#44; diagnosis&#44; and treatment of CVC-related infections&#44; especially in the ICU&#44; and these have contributed to reduce the risk of infection&#46; However&#44; these guidelines do not focus on peripheral lines&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#8211;6</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In 2016&#44; a panel of experts from the Spanish Societies of Internal Medicine &#40;SEMI&#41;&#44; Cardiovascular Infections &#40;SEICAV&#41;&#44; Chemotherapy &#40;SEQ&#41; and Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery &#40;SECTCV&#41; joined forces to establish recommendations based on the best available evidence for PVC management&#46; Many recommendations had a low quality of evidence because of the lack of well-designed studies in this field&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> In the current article&#44; we will discuss some recommendations that we believe are key points to improve PVC management&#44; and that will contribute to reduce PVC bacteremia episodes&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">First&#44; we should consider the need for a PVC&#46; A venous line should not be placed as a routine act&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> Many practitioners prefer to prescribe intravenous drugs&#44; even though the patient&#39;s clinical condition would allow oral administration&#44; and treatment alternatives with an equally effective pharmacokinetic profile are available&#46; Prevalence studies have shown that almost 38&#37; of PVCs are not necessary&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;18</span></a> Avoiding unnecessary venous catheterization is obviously the main action to prevent catheter-related bacteremia&#46; When an intravenous access is needed&#44; it is mandatory to choose the catheter type in accordance with the expected duration of catheterization and the use for which it is required&#46; Intravenous therapy planned for more than 6 days&#44; or a catheter needed for major procedures such as hemodialysis&#44; plasmapheresis&#44; chemotherapy&#44; parenteral nutrition&#44; or monitoring fluid replacement therapy&#44; among others&#44; require the use of a central line rather than a peripheral one&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;19</span></a></p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Second&#44; inserting a PVC into a central vein does not make much sense&#46; If it is necessary&#44; upper extremity veins are preferable to minimize the risk of infection&#46; Insertion of a PVC does not require a sterile surgical field&#44; as is mandatory for CVCs&#44; but an aseptic technique is mandatory&#46; The skin must be disinfected&#44; and no differences have been seen between the use of alcoholic chlorhexidine or iodine&#46; The insertion site should not be touched after disinfection&#46; The caregiver inserting the PVC can wear clean single-use gloves instead of sterile ones&#44; and the catheter must be handled from its proximal end&#46; Additional measures of asepsis are not required&#46; Nonetheless&#44; when there are doubts about adherence to these basic rules&#44; the catheter should be removed and replaced by another&#44; if needed&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Third&#44; the catheter and its use should be assessed daily&#44; as the risk of phlebitis and infection increases gradually over time&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19&#8211;22</span></a> The insertion site should be carefully evaluated&#46; Pain&#44; tenderness&#44; warmth&#44; and&#47;or local erythema are suspicious signs of initial phlebitis&#47;infection that may prompt catheter removal&#46; When the purpose of PVC use is completed&#44; it is strongly recommended to remove it&#46; Catheters in place more than 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h out of use are prone to infection and should be removed&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fourth&#44; a causal relationship has been established between the time a PVC is in place and the risk of phlebitis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19&#8211;22</span></a> For this reason&#44; some authors have advocated for scheduled PVC replacement every 3 or 4 days&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20&#8211;23</span></a> However&#44; this strategy involves the inconvenience of catheter replacement for both caregivers and patients&#44; and it has not demonstrated a cost-benefit effect&#46; Prospective randomized studies comparing PVC replacement at 72<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h versus a clinically indicated time point&#44; have not shown differences in outcomes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#8211;32</span></a> A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that scheduled PVC removal is not supported by current scientific evidence if the catheter site is monitored daily&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> However&#44; it is not advisable to maintain PVCs in place beyond 5 days&#44; mainly if they are not in use&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fifth&#44; the catheter should be removed under the following circumstances&#58; end of therapy&#44; clinical signs of phlebitis&#44; suspicion of infection&#44; malfunction&#44; or inappropriate insertion or manipulation&#46; Simple removal is performed with clean single-use gloves&#44; and gauze dressing is applied thereafter&#46; Removal for suspected infection implies sending the catheter tip &#40;2&#8211;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm of the distal end&#41; in a sterile container for microbiologic processing&#46; In this case&#44; sterile gloves and a sterile instrument must be used to cut the catheter&#44; and clinical judgment is needed to obtain two sets of blood cultures to demonstrate CRB&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sixth&#44; it is mandatory to keep a daily record of the characteristics and conditions of the catheter&#46; This registry should be a basic element of nosocomial bacteremia control in each hospital&#46; Data about the catheter type&#44; date&#44; and anatomic location of insertion&#44; results of daily inspection&#44; removal date&#44; and reason for removal should be included&#46; Electronically supported registries can facilitate data collection and analysis&#46; If catheter incidents are not recorded&#44; we will be unaware of how the catheters are being used and what associated complications arise&#44; which is an obstacle to establishing measures to improve catheter use and reduce nosocomial bacteremia&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Finally&#44; continuous education is the best way to avoid misuse of catheters&#46; Lack of a continuing education program leads to relaxation of the rules and abandonment of good clinical practices&#46; On the other hand&#44; specific&#44; periodic educational programs have proven to be effective for reducing infection rates&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34&#8211;40</span></a> particularly if education is among peers&#44; such as the staff engaged in catheter management&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Conclusions</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">PVCs are an important resource for treating patients&#46; However&#44; abuse and misuse of these devices can lead to a considerable increase in treatment-related complications&#44; particularly bacteremia&#46; Responsible use and careful management of PVCs is essential to avoid these events&#46; Obligatory daily recording of the characteristics and conditions of the catheter is the best way to prevent infection&#44; and analysis of these data may provide information to be used by educational programs for continuous training and improvements in catheter use&#46; It may be helpful to establish a checklist for appropriate manipulation of PVCs &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46; If the simple rules for proper catheter management are not fulfilled&#44; prompt removal of the device is advised&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Many of these recommendations are strong enough to be applied&#44; but the quality of the available evidence is sometimes weak and based only on clinical experience&#46; The paucity of robust evidence in this regard indicates a need for further research to achieve continuing improvements in PVC management&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
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          "identificador" => "sec0005"
          "titulo" => "The magnitude of the problem"
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          "identificador" => "sec0010"
          "titulo" => "State of the art"
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          "identificador" => "sec0015"
          "titulo" => "Opportunities to improve"
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    "fechaRecibido" => "2017-03-22"
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          "clase" => "keyword"
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          "palabras" => array:7 [
            0 => "Catheter-related infection"
            1 => "Catheter-related bacteremia"
            2 => "Nosocomial infection"
            3 => "Prevention"
            4 => "Peripheral venous catheter"
            5 => "Phlebitis"
            6 => "Bloodstream infection"
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          "palabras" => array:7 [
            0 => "Infecci&#243;n relacionada con cat&#233;teres"
            1 => "Bacteriemia por cat&#233;ter"
            2 => "Infecci&#243;n nosocomial"
            3 => "Prevenci&#243;n"
            4 => "Cat&#233;ter venoso perif&#233;rico"
            5 => "Flebitis"
            6 => "Bacteremia"
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      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Catheter-related bacteremia is one of the most important causes of nosocomial infection&#46; Is associated to high rates of morbidity and mortality&#44; including an economic burden&#46; Peripheral venous catheter bacteremia is a leading cause of nosocomial infection in internal medicine departments&#46; In this article&#44; we review some important key points to improve its use and avoid infections&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
      "es" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La bacteriemia relacionada con el uso de cat&#233;teres venosos es una de las principales causas de infecci&#243;n nosocomial que se asocia a importante morbilidad&#44; mortalidad e incremento del gasto sanitario&#46; El cat&#233;ter venoso perif&#233;rico es una causa importante de bacteriemia nosocomial en los servicios y&#47;o unidades m&#233;dicas&#46; En este art&#237;culo revisamos los aspectos m&#225;s importantes de su uso que pueden contribuir a prevenir la infecci&#243;n relacionada con estos cat&#233;teres perif&#233;ricos&#46;</p></span>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">PVC&#44; peripheral venous catheter&#46;</p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " rowspan="6" align="left" valign="top">Insertion</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">- Correct hand hygiene&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Field disinfection&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Use single-use clean gloves&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Do not touch the insertion site&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Do not touch the intravenous segment of the catheter&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Sterile dressing &#40;gauze or transparent&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " rowspan="4" align="left" valign="top">Manipulation</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">- Daily assessment of the need for the PVC&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Daily inspection of the insertion site&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Daily assessment of the function of the catheter&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Adequate replacement of infusion sets&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Daily catheter and events registry&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Checklist for an appropriate manipulation of peripheral catheters&#46; If these are not fullfilled&#44; the prompt removal of the catheter is advised&#46;</p>"
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Special article
Peripheral venous catheter, a dangerous weapon. Key points to improve its use
Catéter venoso periférico, un arma peligrosa. Puntos clave para mejorar su uso
A. Capdevila-Reniua, J.A. Capdevilab,
Autor para correspondencia
jcapdevila@csdm.cat

Corresponding author.
a Servicio de Medicina Interna, Hospital Clínic, Barcelona, Spain
b Servicio de Medicina Interna, Hospital de Mataró, Mataró, Spain
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    "titulo" => "Peripheral venous catheter&#44; a dangerous weapon&#46; Key points to improve its use"
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Catheter-related bacteremia &#40;CRB&#41; is an important cause of nosocomial infection&#44; associated with high morbidity and mortality rates and a considerable economic burden&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0205"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2</span></a> In 2006&#44; Maki et al&#46; graded the risk of bloodstream infection in adults with various intravascular devices&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0215"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> concluding that the risk is higher in patients with large central venous catheters &#40;CVCs&#41; than in those with short peripheral venous catheters &#40;PVCs&#41;&#44; according to the number of days the catheter is in place&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Standard recommendations for prevention of catheter-related infection based on the best available evidence are periodically published by scientific societies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#8211;6</span></a> This has contributed to reducing the infection risk of venous catheterization&#44; mainly in intensive care units &#40;ICU&#41; where CVCs are commonly used&#46; However&#44; there is scant information about prevention in relation to PVCs&#46; Recently&#44; an expert consensus document was published on the prevention&#44; diagnosis&#44; and treatment of short-term PVC-related infection in adults&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> The aim of this article is to present and discuss the key points that can contribute to better use of short-term PVCs in hospital wards&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">The magnitude of the problem</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A recent prevalence study showed that 81&#46;9&#37; of patients admitted to Internal Medicine departments have one or more catheters inserted&#44; among which 95&#37; were short-term PVCs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> PVC use is much more extensive than the use of CVCs&#46; For example&#44; in one community hospital in our setting&#44; 60 PVCs were placed for each CVC &#40;unpublished data from Mataro Hospital&#59; Mataro&#44; Spain&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the laboratory-based surveillance registry of hospital-acquired CRB in Catalonia &#40;northeast Spain&#41; during 2007&#8211;2010&#44; which included 2977 CRB episodes from 40 hospitals&#44; 1 out of 5 episodes was caused by a PVC&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0245"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> Analysis of data from outside the ICU has shown that PVC infection is even more relevant in this setting&#46; In one university-affiliated hospital&#44; 150 CRB episodes were detected in non-intensive care patients over a 12-month period&#58; 77 were PVC-related and 73 CVC-related&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0250"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Furthermore&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Staphylococcus aureus</span> was more commonly the cause of PVC episodes than CVC episodes &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01&#41; and this led to a higher rate of infectious complications&#44; including nosocomial endocarditis&#44; in patients with PVCs&#46; Mortality was similar in the two groups&#46; A study carried out in a community hospital<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0255"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> also showed the importance of <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S&#46; aureus</span> as a cause of PVC bacteremia&#59; the complication rate and related mortality were not inferior to those of CVC bacteremia&#46; These data underscore the relevance of PVCs and their high associated risk of nosocomial bacteremia&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0260"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></a> Clearly&#44; preventive measures focusing on the management of peripheral lines should be implemented and adopted in clinical practice&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">State of the art</span><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A prevalence survey about PVCs management was carried out in 47 Internal Medicine departments &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2090 patients&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> It included an interview with the head nurses using a standardized questionnaire to assess local policies and practices for daily care of intravenous catheters as compared to international standards&#46; The results showed a huge need for improvement regarding catheter use and care&#46; It was estimated that 19&#37; of the catheters in place were no longer necessary&#46; A daily record of the need for a catheter was available in only 40&#46;6&#37; of cases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0240"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> In addition&#44; several observational studies have shown that there is a lack of knowledge on how to use PVCs by attending staff and great differences in the handling of these devices&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0265"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#8211;16</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Opportunities to improve</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Based on the results of observational studies and the evaluation of staff knowledge about the risk factors for infection and handling of PVCs&#44; we think there are many opportunities to improve catheter use and care&#46; Several guidelines and consensus documents are available on the prevention&#44; diagnosis&#44; and treatment of CVC-related infections&#44; especially in the ICU&#44; and these have contributed to reduce the risk of infection&#46; However&#44; these guidelines do not focus on peripheral lines&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0220"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#8211;6</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In 2016&#44; a panel of experts from the Spanish Societies of Internal Medicine &#40;SEMI&#41;&#44; Cardiovascular Infections &#40;SEICAV&#41;&#44; Chemotherapy &#40;SEQ&#41; and Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery &#40;SECTCV&#41; joined forces to establish recommendations based on the best available evidence for PVC management&#46; Many recommendations had a low quality of evidence because of the lack of well-designed studies in this field&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0235"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> In the current article&#44; we will discuss some recommendations that we believe are key points to improve PVC management&#44; and that will contribute to reduce PVC bacteremia episodes&#46;</p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">First&#44; we should consider the need for a PVC&#46; A venous line should not be placed as a routine act&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> Many practitioners prefer to prescribe intravenous drugs&#44; even though the patient&#39;s clinical condition would allow oral administration&#44; and treatment alternatives with an equally effective pharmacokinetic profile are available&#46; Prevalence studies have shown that almost 38&#37; of PVCs are not necessary&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0285"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;18</span></a> Avoiding unnecessary venous catheterization is obviously the main action to prevent catheter-related bacteremia&#46; When an intravenous access is needed&#44; it is mandatory to choose the catheter type in accordance with the expected duration of catheterization and the use for which it is required&#46; Intravenous therapy planned for more than 6 days&#44; or a catheter needed for major procedures such as hemodialysis&#44; plasmapheresis&#44; chemotherapy&#44; parenteral nutrition&#44; or monitoring fluid replacement therapy&#44; among others&#44; require the use of a central line rather than a peripheral one&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0230"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;19</span></a></p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Second&#44; inserting a PVC into a central vein does not make much sense&#46; If it is necessary&#44; upper extremity veins are preferable to minimize the risk of infection&#46; Insertion of a PVC does not require a sterile surgical field&#44; as is mandatory for CVCs&#44; but an aseptic technique is mandatory&#46; The skin must be disinfected&#44; and no differences have been seen between the use of alcoholic chlorhexidine or iodine&#46; The insertion site should not be touched after disinfection&#46; The caregiver inserting the PVC can wear clean single-use gloves instead of sterile ones&#44; and the catheter must be handled from its proximal end&#46; Additional measures of asepsis are not required&#46; Nonetheless&#44; when there are doubts about adherence to these basic rules&#44; the catheter should be removed and replaced by another&#44; if needed&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Third&#44; the catheter and its use should be assessed daily&#44; as the risk of phlebitis and infection increases gradually over time&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19&#8211;22</span></a> The insertion site should be carefully evaluated&#46; Pain&#44; tenderness&#44; warmth&#44; and&#47;or local erythema are suspicious signs of initial phlebitis&#47;infection that may prompt catheter removal&#46; When the purpose of PVC use is completed&#44; it is strongly recommended to remove it&#46; Catheters in place more than 24<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h out of use are prone to infection and should be removed&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fourth&#44; a causal relationship has been established between the time a PVC is in place and the risk of phlebitis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0295"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19&#8211;22</span></a> For this reason&#44; some authors have advocated for scheduled PVC replacement every 3 or 4 days&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0300"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">20&#8211;23</span></a> However&#44; this strategy involves the inconvenience of catheter replacement for both caregivers and patients&#44; and it has not demonstrated a cost-benefit effect&#46; Prospective randomized studies comparing PVC replacement at 72<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>h versus a clinically indicated time point&#44; have not shown differences in outcomes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0320"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#8211;32</span></a> A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that scheduled PVC removal is not supported by current scientific evidence if the catheter site is monitored daily&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0365"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> However&#44; it is not advisable to maintain PVCs in place beyond 5 days&#44; mainly if they are not in use&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fifth&#44; the catheter should be removed under the following circumstances&#58; end of therapy&#44; clinical signs of phlebitis&#44; suspicion of infection&#44; malfunction&#44; or inappropriate insertion or manipulation&#46; Simple removal is performed with clean single-use gloves&#44; and gauze dressing is applied thereafter&#46; Removal for suspected infection implies sending the catheter tip &#40;2&#8211;3<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm of the distal end&#41; in a sterile container for microbiologic processing&#46; In this case&#44; sterile gloves and a sterile instrument must be used to cut the catheter&#44; and clinical judgment is needed to obtain two sets of blood cultures to demonstrate CRB&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Sixth&#44; it is mandatory to keep a daily record of the characteristics and conditions of the catheter&#46; This registry should be a basic element of nosocomial bacteremia control in each hospital&#46; Data about the catheter type&#44; date&#44; and anatomic location of insertion&#44; results of daily inspection&#44; removal date&#44; and reason for removal should be included&#46; Electronically supported registries can facilitate data collection and analysis&#46; If catheter incidents are not recorded&#44; we will be unaware of how the catheters are being used and what associated complications arise&#44; which is an obstacle to establishing measures to improve catheter use and reduce nosocomial bacteremia&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Finally&#44; continuous education is the best way to avoid misuse of catheters&#46; Lack of a continuing education program leads to relaxation of the rules and abandonment of good clinical practices&#46; On the other hand&#44; specific&#44; periodic educational programs have proven to be effective for reducing infection rates&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0370"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34&#8211;40</span></a> particularly if education is among peers&#44; such as the staff engaged in catheter management&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Conclusions</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">PVCs are an important resource for treating patients&#46; However&#44; abuse and misuse of these devices can lead to a considerable increase in treatment-related complications&#44; particularly bacteremia&#46; Responsible use and careful management of PVCs is essential to avoid these events&#46; Obligatory daily recording of the characteristics and conditions of the catheter is the best way to prevent infection&#44; and analysis of these data may provide information to be used by educational programs for continuous training and improvements in catheter use&#46; It may be helpful to establish a checklist for appropriate manipulation of PVCs &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#41;&#46; If the simple rules for proper catheter management are not fulfilled&#44; prompt removal of the device is advised&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Many of these recommendations are strong enough to be applied&#44; but the quality of the available evidence is sometimes weak and based only on clinical experience&#46; The paucity of robust evidence in this regard indicates a need for further research to achieve continuing improvements in PVC management&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Catheter-related bacteremia is one of the most important causes of nosocomial infection&#46; Is associated to high rates of morbidity and mortality&#44; including an economic burden&#46; Peripheral venous catheter bacteremia is a leading cause of nosocomial infection in internal medicine departments&#46; In this article&#44; we review some important key points to improve its use and avoid infections&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La bacteriemia relacionada con el uso de cat&#233;teres venosos es una de las principales causas de infecci&#243;n nosocomial que se asocia a importante morbilidad&#44; mortalidad e incremento del gasto sanitario&#46; El cat&#233;ter venoso perif&#233;rico es una causa importante de bacteriemia nosocomial en los servicios y&#47;o unidades m&#233;dicas&#46; En este art&#237;culo revisamos los aspectos m&#225;s importantes de su uso que pueden contribuir a prevenir la infecci&#243;n relacionada con estos cat&#233;teres perif&#233;ricos&#46;</p></span>"
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                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " rowspan="6" align="left" valign="top">Insertion</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">- Correct hand hygiene&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Field disinfection&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Use single-use clean gloves&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Do not touch the insertion site&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Do not touch the intravenous segment of the catheter&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Sterile dressing &#40;gauze or transparent&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " rowspan="4" align="left" valign="top">Manipulation</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">- Daily assessment of the need for the PVC&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Daily inspection of the insertion site&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Daily assessment of the function of the catheter&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">- Adequate replacement of infusion sets&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " colspan="2" align="left" valign="top"><span class="elsevierStyleVsp" style="height:0.5px"></span></td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td-with-role" title="table-entry ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="top">Daily catheter and events registry&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="" valign="top">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
                  """
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Checklist for an appropriate manipulation of peripheral catheters&#46; If these are not fullfilled&#44; the prompt removal of the catheter is advised&#46;</p>"
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ISSN: 00142565
Idioma original: Inglés
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